Identifying diagnostic biomarkers in functional motor disorders through multimodal behavioral, neurophysiological, and imaging assessment using explainable machine learning.
Authors
Affiliations (24)
Affiliations (24)
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy. [email protected].
- Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Verona, Verona, Italy. [email protected].
- Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Verona, Verona, Italy.
- Department of Chemical, Material and Industrial Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.
- Neuroimaging Research Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.
- Neurotech Hub, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics and Maternal Child Health, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy.
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry "Scuola Medica Salernitana", University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy.
- IRCCS Synlab SDN, Naples, Italy.
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.
- Neurology Unit, University Hospital "San Giovanni di Dio E Ruggi d'Aragona", Salerno, Italy.
- UOC Neuroradiologia Diagnostica ed Interventistica Azienda Ospedaliera-Universitaria "San Giovanni di Dio E Ruggi d'Aragona", Salerno, Italy.
- Department of Medicine, Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (CEMAND), University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy.
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
- Department of Diagnostic and Public Health, Section of Radiology, University of Verona, P.Le L.A. Scuro 10, 37134, Verona, Italy.
- Department of Radiology, Ospedale G. B. Rossi AOUI Verona, Verona, Italy.
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Pediatrics, and Gynecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
- Neurology Unit, Movement Disorders Division, Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
- Neurology Unit, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.
- Neurorehabilitation Unit, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.
- Neurophysiology Service, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy. [email protected].
- Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata Verona, Verona, Italy. [email protected].
Abstract
Functional motor disorders (FMDs) represent a frequent and disabling neurological condition. The lack of reliable diagnostic biomarkers and their heterogeneity might affect diagnosis. We identified multimodal biomarkers distinguishing FMDs from healthy controls (HCs) using machine-learning approaches. In this multicenter cross-sectional study, consecutive adults with a clinically established FMDs diagnosis (n = 75, 74.7% female; mean age 44.20 ± 12.92) and age- and sex-matched HCs (n = 75; 58.6% female; 48.42 ± 11.67) were recruited. All participants underwent standardized behavioral, neurophysiological, and brain MRI assessment exploring motor, exteroceptive, and interoceptive domains. A Random Forest (RF) classifier combined with repeated stratified k-fold cross-validation was trained on the collected features. Predictive performance was evaluated using accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, precision, F1-score, and AUC-ROC. SHapley Additive exPlanations interpreted feature importance. The strongest diagnostic biomarkers were lower dual-task effect scores for postural sway area under eyes-closed motor and cognitive conditions, and gait speed during the motor dual-task, followed by increased vDMN and basal ganglia networks functional connectivity, reduced baseline ipsilateral-contralateral R2 blink reflex area, and higher DNIC-to-baseline N2P2 amplitude ratios for the lower limb. The RF classifier achieved robust performance (accuracy 85.0%, sensitivity 83.9%, specificity 86.1%, F1-score 85.7%, AUC-ROC 0.921). Motor, functional neuroimaging, and neurophysiological markers demonstrated diagnostic value in distinguishing FMDs from healthy controls, addressing the current lack of objective tools and supporting more confident and accurate diagnosis of these heterogeneous conditions. Trial registration number NCT06328790. Registered on 26 March 2024.